Linguistic context refers to the surrounding words, phrases, or sentences that help clarify the meaning of a particular word or expression in communication. It includes the immediate linguistic environment, such as the sentence in which a word appears, as well as broader aspects like the conversation topic or cultural background. For example, the word “bank” can mean a financial institution or the side of a river, and understanding its meaning depends on the context in which it is used. By providing additional information, linguistic context allows speakers and listeners to interpret language more accurately, enhancing comprehension and effective communication.

What is "linguistic context"?

linguistic context

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Deixis is a linguistic term that refers to words and phrases that require contextual information to convey meaning. These expressions are often related to time, place, or identity and include words such as "here," "there," "now," "then," "I," and "you." For instance, the meaning of "I am here" changes depending on who is speaking and where they are located. Deictic expressions help anchor conversations in specific contexts, making it clear who is involved and when and where the actions are taking place. This aspect of language is essential for effective communication, as it allows speakers to reference their immediate situation and engage with their audience.

What is "deixis"?

deixis

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Person deixis is a type of deixis that involves words that indicate the participants in a conversation, typically through pronouns. It focuses on the roles of the speaker, listener, and others mentioned in the discourse. For example, in the sentence "I will help you," "I" refers to the speaker, and "you" refers to the listener. Person deixis helps clarify who is being talked about and can change based on who is speaking or being addressed. It plays a crucial role in establishing relationships and interactions between individuals in communication, ensuring that roles are clearly defined.

What is "person deixis"?

person deixis

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Spatial deixis is a linguistic concept that involves words and phrases that indicate the location of entities in relation to the speaker or listener. It includes terms such as "here," "there," "above," and "below," which help specify where something is situated. For example, in the sentence "The book is over there," the word "there" points to a location that is not near the speaker. Spatial deixis is important for providing clear directions and understanding the physical context of a conversation. By using these expressions, speakers can effectively communicate about distances and locations, enhancing clarity in interactions.

What is "spatial deixis"?

spatial deixis

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Temporal deixis is a linguistic term that refers to words and phrases that indicate time in relation to the speaker's perspective. It includes expressions like "now," "then," "today," "tomorrow," and "yesterday," which help specify when an event occurs. For example, in the sentence "I will call you tomorrow," the word "tomorrow" points to a time that is understood in relation to the present moment. Temporal deixis is essential for situating actions and events in time, allowing speakers to convey when something happens or will happen. This aspect of language helps provide clarity in communication by anchoring statements within a specific temporal context.

What is "temporal deixis"?

temporal deixis

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Direct speech is a way of reporting what someone has said by quoting their exact words. It typically involves using quotation marks to enclose the spoken words, allowing the speaker's original expression to be preserved. For example, in the sentence, Sarah said, "I will go to the store," the phrase within the quotation marks represents Sarah's exact words. Direct speech is often used in writing to convey dialogue in a clear and engaging manner, allowing readers to hear the voices of the characters and understand their thoughts and emotions. This technique is commonly found in literature, journalism, and everyday communication.

What is "direct speech"?

direct speech

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Indirect speech, also known as reported speech, is a way of conveying what someone has said without quoting their exact words. Instead of using quotation marks, the speaker paraphrases or summarizes the original statement. For example, in the sentence, Sarah said that she would go to the store, the exact words are not repeated, and the statement is rephrased. Indirect speech often involves changes in pronouns, verb tense, and other grammatical adjustments to fit the context of the reporting sentence. This method is useful for relaying information while maintaining a smooth narrative flow, allowing the speaker to focus on the content rather than the specific wording.

What is "indirect speech"?

indirect speech

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A speech act is a communicative action that conveys meaning and performs a function through spoken or written language. It includes various types of actions, such as making a statement, asking a question, giving a command, or making a promise. For example, when someone says, "I apologize," they are not just stating something, but also performing the act of apologizing. Speech acts can be categorized into different types, including assertive for stating facts, directive for giving commands or requests, commissive for making promises, expressive for expressing feelings, and declarative for making declarations. Understanding speech acts is important in analyzing how language is used to achieve specific goals in communication.

What is a "speech act"?

speech act

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Reference is the act of referring to or indicating something or someone in language, where words or expressions are used to point to or denote specific entities, objects, or concepts. For example, in the sentence, "The cat is on the mat," the word "cat" refers to a specific animal, while "mat" refers to a specific object. Reference can be direct, where the term clearly identifies the entity, or indirect, where it implies or suggests the entity without naming it directly. Understanding reference is essential for interpreting meaning in communication, as it helps clarify what is being discussed and ensures effective understanding between speakers and listeners.

What is "reference"?

reference

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A face-threatening act is a communicative action that challenges or threatens someone's social identity, self-esteem, or dignity in a conversation. This can occur through direct criticism, insults, requests that impose on someone's time, or any behavior that undermines a person's social face or public image. For example, telling someone, "You always make mistakes," can be seen as a face-threatening act because it may damage that person's self-esteem. Understanding face-threatening acts is important in communication, as they can affect relationships and influence how people respond to one another in social interactions.

What is a "face-threatening act"?

face-threatening act

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An expression is a word or phrase that conveys a specific idea, emotion, or meaning, often used in a particular context. Expressions can be literal, where the meaning is clear and straightforward, or idiomatic, where the meaning is not obvious from the individual words. For example, the expression "kick the bucket" is an idiomatic phrase meaning to die, which may not be understood by looking at the words alone. Expressions play a crucial role in communication, as they enrich language and allow speakers to convey complex thoughts and feelings effectively.

What is an "expression"?

expression

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Caregiver speech refers to the way adults, particularly caregivers, communicate with young children or individuals who may have developmental delays or disabilities. This type of speech often includes a higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, slower tempo, and simplified vocabulary to engage and hold the listener's attention. For example, a caregiver might say, "Look at the big dog! Woof, woof!" to make the conversation more lively and relatable. Caregiver speech is important because it helps support language development, social interaction, and emotional bonding, making communication more effective and enjoyable for both parties.

What is "caregiver speech"?

caregiver speech

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Connected speech refers to the way spoken language flows naturally, where words are pronounced together in a smooth and often linked manner, rather than as distinct, separate units. In connected speech, sounds may change or blend, making it more challenging for learners to recognize individual words. For example, "want to" may sound like "wanna" and "going to" may become "gonna." This phenomenon is important in everyday conversation, as it reflects how people naturally communicate, helping to maintain the rhythm and pace of speech while making it sound more fluent and conversational.

What is "connected speech"?

connected speech

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A discourse marker is a word or phrase used in conversation to guide the flow of speech, indicate a change in topic, or express the speaker's attitude. These markers help organize discourse and make it easier for listeners to follow the speaker's thoughts. Common examples include "well," "so," "however," and "you know." For instance, someone might say, "So, I went to the store yesterday," where "so" signals a transition to a new point. Discourse markers are important in spoken language because they enhance communication by providing cues about the structure and direction of the conversation.

What is a "discourse marker"?

discourse marker

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Framing refers to the way information is presented or structured to influence how it is understood or interpreted. In communication, framing involves highlighting certain aspects of a message while downplaying others, shaping the audience's perception and reaction. For example, describing a new policy as a "benefit to the community" instead of "increased taxes" can lead to more positive responses. Framing is important in various contexts, including media, advertising, and everyday conversations, as it affects how individuals interpret events, issues, or ideas based on the chosen wording and context.

What is "framing"?

framing

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Dialogue is a conversation or exchange of ideas between two or more individuals, usually marked by turn-taking, interactive communication, and mutual understanding. In dialogue, participants share their thoughts, feelings, and perspectives, allowing for deeper engagement and connection. It can occur in various forms, such as casual chats, formal discussions, or even written exchanges. For instance, a dialogue might take place between friends discussing their weekend plans or between colleagues brainstorming a project. This form of communication is essential for fostering relationships, resolving conflicts, and encouraging collaborative problem-solving.

What is "dialogue"?

dialogue

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Discourse refers to a structured and coherent way of communicating ideas through spoken or written language. It encompasses various forms of communication, such as conversations, speeches, essays, and discussions, focusing on how language is used to convey meaning within specific contexts. Discourse examines the organization of language, the relationships between speakers or writers and their audience, and the social and cultural factors that influence communication. For example, a political speech may utilize persuasive discourse techniques to inspire and motivate an audience. Understanding discourse is crucial for analyzing how language shapes thoughts, beliefs, and social interactions.

What is "discourse"?

discourse

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Intertextuality is the relationship between texts and how they reference or influence each other. It involves the ways in which one text incorporates elements from another, such as quotes, themes, or stylistic features, creating layers of meaning. Intertextuality can be seen in various forms, including allusions, parodies, or direct quotations, and it highlights the interconnectedness of literature and communication. For instance, a modern novel may reference classic works, enriching its narrative by drawing on the meanings associated with those earlier texts. This concept emphasizes that no text exists in isolation, as they are shaped by the cultural and literary contexts surrounding them.

What is "intertextuality"?

intertextuality

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text

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Pejorative refers to a word or expression that carries a negative or disrespectful connotation, often used to belittle or criticize someone or something. Pejorative terms can express disapproval or convey a sense of contempt, impacting how people perceive the subject being described. For example, calling someone "lazy" can be considered pejorative because it suggests a negative judgment about their character. Understanding pejorative language is important in communication, as it can affect relationships and influence the tone of conversations, often leading to misunderstandings or conflicts.

What is "pejorative"?

pejorative

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Turn-taking is a communication practice where speakers alternate in speaking during a conversation, allowing each person a chance to express their thoughts or ideas. This process is guided by social rules and cues, ensuring that one person speaks while others listen, and it helps maintain the flow of dialogue. Effective turn-taking can involve verbal signals, such as pauses or changes in pitch, as well as non-verbal cues, like nodding or eye contact.

What is "turn-taking"?

turn-taking

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A hedge is a word or phrase used in conversation to lessen the impact of a statement, making it less direct or assertive. A hedge allows speakers to soften their claims or opinions, often to express uncertainty, politeness, or caution. Common examples of hedges include words like "maybe," "possibly," "I think," and "kind of." For instance, saying "I think it might rain" is a hedge that suggests uncertainty about the weather rather than a strong assertion. Using hedges can help maintain a friendly tone in discussions and make it easier to share opinions without coming across as overly forceful or confrontational.

What is a "hedge"?

hedge

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Implicature refers to the implied meaning or suggestion that is not explicitly stated in a conversation but is understood by the participants based on context and shared knowledge. It relies on the listener's ability to infer the speaker's intention beyond the literal words spoken. For example, if someone says "It is getting cold in here," the implicature might be a request to close a window or turn up the heat, even though those actions are not directly mentioned. Understanding implicature is essential for effective communication, as it helps convey subtle meanings and social cues in dialogue.

What is "implicature"?

implicature

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Coherence refers to the logical connections and consistency in a piece of writing or speech, allowing ideas to flow smoothly and making it easier for the audience to understand the message. It ensures that different parts of the text or conversation relate to each other in a meaningful way, helping to create a clear overall structure. For example, in a coherent essay, each paragraph builds on the previous one and contributes to the main argument, guiding the reader through the content without confusion. Coherence is important in effective communication, as it enhances clarity and comprehension.

What is "coherence"?

coherence

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Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical connections that link sentences and ideas within a text, making it easier for readers to follow along. It involves the use of various devices, such as pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional words, to tie different parts of the text together. For example, in a cohesive paragraph, pronouns like "it" or "they" might refer back to previously mentioned nouns, while words like "however" or "for instance" help to clarify relationships between ideas. Cohesion is essential for creating a unified and understandable piece of writing or speech.

What is "cohesion"?

cohesion

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A cohesion tie refers to a specific word or phrase used in writing or speaking to connect different parts of a text, helping to create coherence and clarity. These ties can include pronouns, conjunctions, and transitional phrases that link sentences or ideas. For example, in the sentence "Lisa enjoys reading. She often visits the library," the word "she" serves as a cohesion tie, linking the second sentence back to "Lisa." Cohesion ties are important because they guide the reader or listener through the text, making the relationships between ideas clear and easy to understand.

What is a "cohesion tie"?

cohesion tie

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Circumlocution is the practice of using many words to describe something instead of stating it directly. This often involves a roundabout way of expressing an idea, making it longer and more complex than necessary. For example, instead of saying "car," one might say "a vehicle that is used for driving." Circumlocution can be used for various reasons, such as when someone wants to avoid being too blunt or when the exact term is not known. While it can add nuance to communication, it may also lead to confusion if the intended meaning is not clear.

What is "circumlocution"?

circumlocution

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A euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace a term that may be considered harsh, unpleasant, or offensive. It aims to soften the impact of the original term and make it more acceptable in conversation. For example, instead of saying "die," one might say "pass away." Euphemisms are often used in sensitive topics such as death, bodily functions, or discomforting situations. While they can help to convey a message in a gentler way, they may also obscure the truth or make communication less direct.

What is a "euphemism"?

euphemism

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Equivocation is the use of ambiguous language to allow for multiple interpretations, often to mislead or avoid committing to a clear stance. It involves using a word or phrase with more than one meaning in a way that can confuse the audience. For instance, if someone says, "I did not steal the money," while knowing that they did not physically take it but were involved in some other way, they are using equivocation to create a misleading impression. This tactic is often used in debates, arguments, or discussions where clarity is essential for understanding the truth.

What is "equivocation"?

equivocation

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Holophrasis is the expression of a complete idea or sentence using a single word or a simple phrase. This often occurs in early language development, where a child uses a single word to convey a more complex meaning. For example, a child might say "milk" to indicate a desire for milk, or "up" to mean they want to be picked up. Holophrasis highlights how language can be compact and context-dependent, relying on shared understanding to communicate more than what is explicitly stated.

What is "holophrasis"?

holophrasis

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Colloquialism refers to informal language or expressions that are used in everyday conversation rather than in formal speech or writing. These terms or phrases can vary by region or community and often reflect the local culture and social norms. For example, saying "gonna" instead of "going to," or using the word "y'all" to refer to a group of people are examples of colloquialisms. Colloquial language helps create a casual tone and can make communication feel more relatable and approachable.

What is "colloquialism"?

colloquialism

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Malapropism is the unintentional use of a word that sounds similar to the intended word but has a completely different meaning, often resulting in a humorous effect. This occurs when someone confuses one word with another that sounds alike, leading to a mix-up in communication. For example, saying "He is the pineapple of politeness" instead of "He is the pinnacle of politeness" illustrates a malapropism. Such mistakes can add humor to conversation but may also cause confusion if the listener does not understand the intended meaning.

What is "malapropism"?

malapropism

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An utterance is a complete and coherent unit of speech or writing that conveys a specific meaning or message. It can consist of a single word, a phrase, or a complete sentence, depending on the context. For example, saying "Hello" or "I would like a cup of coffee" are both examples of utterances, as they express clear ideas and intentions. Utterances are essential for communication, as they allow individuals to share thoughts, feelings, and information effectively.

What is an "utterance"?

utterance

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Pleonasm is a figure of speech where extra words are used to express an idea that could be conveyed more simply. It involves using redundant words that repeat the same meaning. For instance, saying "free gift" is an example of pleonasm because a gift is inherently free, so the word "free" is unnecessary. Pleonasm often adds emphasis or clarity, but it can also be used unintentionally.

What is "pleonasm"?

pleonasm

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Tmesis is a linguistic phenomenon where a word is separated into two parts by inserting another word or words in between. This often occurs for emphasis or stylistic effect. An example of tmesis can be found in the phrase "un-freaking-believable," where the expletive "freaking" interrupts the word "unbelievable." This technique is used to create a more expressive or dramatic effect in language. Tmesis highlights the flexibility of language and how it can be manipulated for various communicative purposes.

What is "tmesis"?

tmesis

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A rhetorical question is a question posed for effect or to make a point rather than to elicit an answer. It is often used to encourage the listener to consider a particular idea or perspective. For example, asking "Is the sky blue?" does not seek a response, as the answer is obvious. Rhetorical questions can be a powerful tool in speeches and writing, helping to engage the audience and provoke thought without requiring direct interaction. They emphasize the speaker's message and can enhance persuasion and emotional appeal.

What is a "rhetorical question"?

rhetorical question

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A display question is a type of question asked to check or confirm information that the speaker believes the listener already knows. It is not intended to elicit new information but rather to prompt the listener to demonstrate their knowledge or understanding. For example, asking "What color is the sky?" when the speaker expects the answer to be blue serves as a display question. This type of question often reinforces shared knowledge between the speaker and listener, helping to maintain conversational flow without seeking new information.

What is a "display question"?

display question

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A referential question is a type of inquiry that seeks specific information or clarification about a particular topic, event, or detail. These questions are aimed at obtaining factual answers rather than expressing opinions or feelings. For example, asking "What time does the meeting start?" is a referential question because it requests specific information about the meeting's schedule. Referential questions play a crucial role in communication by facilitating the exchange of clear and precise information, allowing for better understanding and discussion between speakers.

What is a "referential question"?

referential question

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Focus refers to the emphasis or importance given to a specific part of a sentence or conversation. It highlights which element is most relevant or noteworthy, helping to convey the main idea clearly. For example, in the sentence "It was John who broke the vase," the focus is on "John," indicating that he is the significant subject in this context. Focus can change depending on what the speaker wants to stress, making it a vital aspect of effective communication by guiding the listener's attention to essential information.

What is "focus"?

focus

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A bilingual pun is a type of wordplay that relies on two languages, creating humor through the use of similar-sounding words or phrases with different meanings in each language. This form of pun often plays with the nuances and idioms of both languages, making it amusing for speakers of either or both languages. Bilingual puns showcase the cleverness of language and the fun of cultural blending.

What is a "bilingual pun"?

bilingual pun

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Backchannel refers to the informal signals or responses made by a listener during a conversation to show engagement, understanding, or support without interrupting the speaker. These can include verbal cues like "uh-huh," "I see," or "right," as well as nonverbal signals like nodding or facial expressions. Backchanneling helps to maintain the flow of conversation and encourages the speaker to continue. It plays an important role in communication by signaling attentiveness and providing feedback, fostering a sense of connection between speakers and listeners.

What is a "backchannel"?

backchannel

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A proverb is a short, well-known saying that expresses a general truth, principle, or piece of advice based on common sense or experience. Proverbs often reflect cultural values and wisdom, using simple language to convey deeper meanings. For example, the proverb "A stitch in time saves nine" suggests that taking care of a problem early can prevent it from becoming much worse later. Proverbs are commonly used in everyday conversation to illustrate points, offer guidance, or provide insight into human behavior and relationships.

What is a "proverb"?

proverb

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Deictic refers to words or expressions that rely on context to convey meaning, often pointing to specific elements in communication such as people, places, or times. These words change meaning based on the situation in which they are used. For example, in the sentence "I will go there tomorrow," the words "I," "there," and "tomorrow" are deictic because their meanings depend on the speaker's identity, location, and the specific time of the conversation. Deictic expressions are important in understanding how language relates to context and reference.

What is "deictic"?

deictic

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Here you will learn some English words related to pragmatics and discourse analysis such as "dialogue", "cohesion", and "equivocation".

Parole inglesi per "Pragmatica e Analisi del Discorso"