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A natural language is a language that has developed naturally through human communication, as opposed to artificial or constructed languages. Examples of natural languages include English, Spanish, Chinese, and Arabic. These languages evolve over time through use in everyday life, adapting to cultural changes and social needs. Natural languages have complex structures, including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, allowing speakers to express thoughts, emotions, and ideas effectively. They are used for various forms of communication, including spoken, written, and signed forms, playing a crucial role in human interaction and society.

An artificial language is a language that has been deliberately created rather than having developed naturally through human use. These languages are often designed for specific purposes, such as facilitating communication, serving as a programming language, or expressing philosophical ideas. Examples of artificial languages include Esperanto, created to promote international understanding; programming languages like Python or Java, used for computer coding; and constructed languages like Klingon, developed for fictional worlds in television and movies. Artificial languages may have simplified grammar and vocabulary, making them easier to learn for specific applications, but they do not typically have the cultural richness found in natural languages.

A constructed language, or conlang, is a language that has been deliberately created by an individual or group rather than having developed naturally over time. Constructed languages are often designed for specific purposes, such as facilitating communication between speakers of different native languages, serving as a fictional language in literature or media, or exploring linguistic concepts. Examples of constructed languages include Esperanto, which aims to promote international communication, and Dothraki and High Valyrian, created for the television series "Game of Thrones." These languages can feature unique grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation systems, offering creative expression and exploring language possibilities beyond natural languages.

Markedness refers to a linguistic concept that describes the relative complexity or simplicity of linguistic forms or structures. In this context, a marked form is considered more complex, specific, or less common, while an unmarked form is simpler, more general, or more frequently used. For example, in English, the singular form of a noun, like "cat," is unmarked, while the plural form, like "cats," is marked because it adds an extra element to convey the change in meaning. Markedness can apply to various aspects of language, including morphology, syntax, and phonology, helping to explain how certain forms are perceived and used in communication.

An entry word refers to a word that is listed in a dictionary or glossary, serving as the main term for which definitions, explanations, or information are provided. Entry words are typically displayed in bold or highlighted text, making them easy to identify. Each entry includes relevant details such as pronunciation guides, part of speech, definitions, example sentences, and sometimes information about the word's origin or usage. The purpose of an entry word is to help users quickly locate and understand the meaning and context of a word within a reference work, supporting language learning and effective communication.

An anglophone refers to a person or community that speaks English as their primary language. This term is often used to describe individuals in regions where English is the dominant or official language, such as in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and many other countries. Anglophones may also include individuals in multilingual societies where English is widely used for communication, business, or education.

Spoken word refers to an utterance expressed in speech rather than in written form. This type of communication involves verbalizing thoughts, ideas, or emotions through spoken language, which can include conversations, speeches, storytelling, or performances. Spoken word is characterized by its immediacy and often includes elements such as tone, pitch, and rhythm, which can enhance the meaning and emotional impact of the message. Unlike written language, which can be revised and edited, spoken word is typically spontaneous and reflects real-time communication, making it a vital aspect of human interaction and expression.

Syntax refers to how words and phrases are organized to create grammatical sentences in a language. It includes the rules that dictate the arrangement of different parts of a sentence, such as subjects, verbs, and objects, to ensure that the intended meaning is clear. Proper syntax is important for effective communication, as it helps convey ideas accurately and understandably. Changes in syntax can also influence the style and tone of language, affecting how a message is perceived. Understanding syntax is crucial for language learners and anyone studying how languages work.

A corpus refers to a large collection of written or spoken texts used for studying language. It serves as a resource for researchers to analyze patterns and usage in a specific language or dialect. Corpora can include different types of texts, such as books, articles, conversations, and transcripts, representing various styles or topics. By examining a corpus, linguists and language learners can understand how language is used in real life, gaining insights into grammar, vocabulary, and communication.

Proto-Indo-European (PIE) refers to the hypothetical ancient language believed to be the common ancestor of the Indo-European language family, which includes languages like English, Spanish, Hindi, and Russian. Spoken thousands of years ago, likely before 3000 BCE, Proto-Indo-European was never written down, but linguists have reconstructed parts of it by comparing similarities in modern and ancient Indo-European languages. By studying shared patterns in grammar, vocabulary, and sound changes, researchers have developed a model of what this early language might have looked like, helping to trace the origins of many languages spoken today.

Orthography refers to the set of rules and conventions for writing a language, including the correct use of letters, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. It defines how words are represented in written form to ensure consistency and clarity in communication. A language's orthography may be based on an alphabet, like in English, or other writing systems, like characters in Chinese. Proper orthography helps maintain clear and understandable written communication, allowing readers to recognize words, sentences, and meanings accurately. It plays an important role in education, literacy, and effective writing.

An emic unit is a concept or idea that is important and understood by people within a particular culture or language. It reflects how those people see and experience their own culture or language from the inside. In fields like linguistics and anthropology, the emic approach focuses on how members of a group understand their own traditions, language, or behaviors. This is different from an "etic" view, which looks at things from an outsider’s perspective. Emic units help us understand how people make sense of their own world.

An exclamation is a sudden and strong expression of emotion, often shown in speech or writing. It can convey feelings like surprise, excitement, anger, or joy. In writing, exclamations are usually followed by an exclamation mark to emphasize the emotion. For example, someone might shout "Wow!" when they are amazed or "Stop!" when they are upset. Exclamations are used to show intense reactions and add energy or urgency to communication.

Jargon refers to language that is seen as meaningless or unclear, often used to impress or confuse others instead of providing clear information. It typically consists of specialized words or expressions that are hard for people outside a certain group to understand. Jargon can make communication difficult when it is overly complex or unnecessary, leaving the listener or reader feeling confused. It is often criticized for creating barriers rather than helping to share ideas or information effectively.

A marker is a feature or element in language that indicates a specific grammatical, social, or linguistic function. It can show things like tense, gender, or formality in speech or writing. For example, adding "-ed" to a verb in English is a marker that indicates the past tense, as in "walked." Markers help clarify meaning and structure in communication, making it easier to understand how words relate to each other and the context in which they are used.

A phraseme refers to a fixed expression or group of words that has a specific meaning and is commonly used together. The meaning of a phraseme cannot always be understood just by looking at the individual words, as the phrase has a unique meaning when combined. Examples include idioms, set phrases, or collocations that people use frequently in everyday language. Phrasemes help make communication more natural and fluent, but they can sometimes be difficult for language learners to understand because their meaning is often figurative or cultural.

Linguistic determinism is the idea that the language a person speaks shapes or limits how they think and perceive the world. According to this concept, the structure and vocabulary of a language influence or even determine a speaker's thoughts, decisions, and worldview. It suggests that people who speak different languages may experience reality in unique ways because their language affects how they categorize and interpret their surroundings. Linguistic determinism is a strong version of the broader theory called linguistic relativity, which explores the relationship between language and thought.

Reflexivity is a grammatical or semantic feature in language where the subject of a verb is also the object or receiver of the action that the subject performs. This creates a self-referential relationship within a sentence. For example, in the sentence "She washed herself," "she" is both the doer of the action and the one receiving it. Reflexivity helps express actions that involve the same person or thing in both roles, making it clear that the action is directed back at the subject.