Cambridge IELTS 18 - Academic - Test 3 - Lecture - Passage 1 (1)

a hard building material made by mixing cement, sand, small stones, and water

to produce energy, such as heat, electricity, etc.

a type of gas with no color and smell that is produced by burning carbon or during breathing out

any of the available possibilities that one can choose from

material of a particular kind or constitution

any type of gas, particularly carbon dioxide, that contributes to global warming by trapping heat

a gray powdery substance that becomes hard if it is mixed with water and sand, used for construction purposes such as sticking bricks of a wall together

to cause something to occur

to guess the value, number, quantity, size, etc. of something without exact calculation

an international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among member countries

the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, primarily from burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and etc.

to increase rapidly to a high level

the increase in the average temperature of the Earth as a result of the greenhouse effect

to introduce new ideas, methods, or products to improve or change the current way of doing things

an unceremonious and disorganized struggle

a product or raw material that can be bought and sold, especially in large quantities on financial markets

support from beneath

to substitute or provide an alternative that fulfills the same function or purpose

a field of study that deals with the building, designing, developing, etc. of structures, bridges, or machines

the point or degree to which something extends

the size, amount, or degree of one thing compared with another

the branch of industry concerned with producing goods, especially on a large scale using machinery

to a specific degree, particularly when compared to other similar things

a large quantity or amount of something

extremely wonderful, excellent, or impressive

a feature or quality of something

absolutely necessary and of great importance

a part that combines with others to form a larger whole, often separable and functional within a system

capable of being molded or modeled (especially of earth or clay or other soft material)

(of a liquid) to assume a solid or hardened form

(physics) relating to or produced by heat

an increase in the amount, size, importance, or degree of something

to make a material or structure stronger by adding support or extra material

capable of adjusting easily to different situations, circumstances, or needs

in regard to what someone has said or written

one of the things that affects something or contributes to it

to surpass or outdo someone or something

so outdated or old-fashioned that it feels primitive or backward

to be the influencing factor that causes something to make progress

a person whose job is to design buildings and often oversee their construction

to direct one's interest or attention toward a specific subject or activity

trees grown or considered as a source of wood for building or other uses

(usually plural) means such as equipment, money, manpower, etc. that a person or organization can benefit from

the process of beginning to exist, develop, or become widely known

to build a house, bridge, machine, etc.

to the fullest or complete degree

the presence of liquid, typically water, in a state of wetness or dampness

easily affected by external factors

an insect or small animal that destroys or damages crops, food, etc.

to apply a substance or process to something in order to protect it, preserve it, or give it special qualities

positioned or directed across or at an angle to something else

to create a composite material by fusing together multiple layers

a substance, such as glue, paste, or tape, that is used to bind two or more surfaces together by creating a bond that resists separation

in a direction or manner that goes across something

a block of material used in construction work

a person or company that provides goods or services to another business or individual

an executive officer whose rank is just below the rank of the president of a country and who can act in place of the president in certain cases to fulfill presidential duties

costumer's need or desire for specific goods or services

a factor, force, or influence that initiates or causes a particular action, process, or change

to make a problem, situation, or condition worse or more serious

able to flow smoothly from one container to another without sticking or breaking apart

designed and made using careful planning, skill, or scientific methods to work in a specific way